A cost-benefit analysis is a process businesses use to analyze decisions (such as capital investment). The business or analyst sums the benefits of a situation or action and then subtracts the costs associated with taking that action.
A cost-benefit analysis (CBA) should begin with compiling a comprehensive list of all the costs and benefits associated with the project or decision.
The costs involved in a CBA might include the following:
- Direct costs would be direct labor involved in manufacturing, inventory, raw materials, manufacturing expenses.
- Indirect costs might include electricity, overhead costs from management, rent, utilities.
- Intangible costs of a decision, such as the impact on customers, employees, or delivery times.
- Opportunity costs such as alternative investments, or buying a plant versus building one.
- Cost of potential risks such as regulatory risks, competition, and environmental impacts.
Benefits might include the following:
- Revenue and sales increases from increased production or new product.
- Intangible benefits, such as improved employee safety and morale, as well as customer satisfaction due to enhanced product offerings or faster delivery.
- Competitive advantage or market share gained as a result of the decision.
An analyst or project manager should apply a monetary measurement to all of the items on the cost-benefit list, taking special care not to underestimate costs or overestimate benefits. A conservative approach with a conscious effort to avoid any subjective tendencies when calculating estimates is best suited when assigning a value to both costs and benefits for a cost-benefit analysis.
Finally, the results of the aggregate costs and benefits should be compared quantitatively to deter-mine if the benefits outweigh the costs. If so, then the rational decision is to go forward with the project. If not, the business should review the project to see if it can make adjustments to either increase benefits or decrease costs to make the project viable. Otherwise, the company should likely avoid the project.
Reference:
- Cost-Benefit Analysis (Investopedia)
- CIPS study guide page 175
LO 3, AC 3.2

Indirect supplies support operations but are not part of the finished product. For a bottling plant, items like lubricants for machine maintenance and office supplies are indirect supplies, as they aid in operation but do not enter the final product. Managing these supplies in whole-life asset management is critical for cost efficiency and operational support.

Lean thinking aims to remove wastes from work processes. Before diving into the 8 wastes, it is important to understand what waste is. Waste is any action or step in a process that does not add value to the customer. In other words, waste is any process that the customer does not want to pay for.
The original seven wastes (Muda) was developed by Taiichi Ohno, the Chief Engineer at Toyota, as part of the Toyota Production System (TPS). The seven wastes are Transportation, Inventory, Motion, Waiting, Overproduction, Overprocessing and Defects. They are often referred to by the acronym 'TIMWOOD'. The
8th waste of non-utilized talent or 'Skills' of workers was later introduced in the 1990s when the Toyota Production System was adopted in the Western world. As a result, the 8 wastes are commonly referred to as
'TIMWOODS'.
Source: The lean way
Multiple approval levels for a small purchase request is an example of over-processing since this adds more unnecessary work to users and procurement professionals.
Reference: CIPS study guide page 127-129
LO 2, AC 2.3