Locator ID Separation Protocol (LISP) solves this issue by separating the location and identity of a device through the Routing locator (RLOC) and Endpoint identifier (EID):
+ Endpoint identifiers (EIDs) ?assigned to end hosts.
+ Routing locators (RLOCs) ?assigned to devices (primarily routers) that make up the global routing system.

Cisco Express Forwarding (CEF) provides the ability to switch packets through a device in a very quick and efficient way while also keeping the load on the router's processor low. CEF is made up of two different main components: the Forwarding Information Base (FIB) and the Adjacency Table. These are automatically updated at the same time as the routing table.
The Forwarding Information Base (FIB) contains destination reachability information as well as next hop information. This information is then used by the router to make forwarding decisions.
The FIB allows for very efficient and easy lookups.
The adjacency table is tasked with maintaining the layer 2 next-hop information for the FIB.
Note: A fast cache is only used when fast switching is enabled while CEF is disabled.

The stratum levels define the distance from the reference clock. A reference clock is a stratum 0 device that is assumed to be accurate and has little or no delay associated with it. Stratum 0 servers cannot be used on the network but they are directly connected to computers which then operate as stratum-1 servers. A stratum 1 time server acts as a primary network time standard.

A stratum 2 server is connected to the stratum 1 server; then a stratum 3 server is connected to the stratum 2 server and so on. A stratum 2 server gets its time via NTP packet requests from a stratum 1 server. A stratum 3 server gets its time via NTP packet requests from a stratum-2 server... A stratum server may also peer with other stratum servers at the same level to provide more stable and robust time for all devices in the peer group (for example a stratum 2 server can peer with other stratum 2 servers). NTP uses the concept of a stratum to describe how many NTP hops away a machine is from an authoritative time source. A stratum 1 time server typically has an authoritative time source (such as a radio or atomic clock, or a Global Positioning System (GPS) time source) directly attached, a stratum 2 time server receives its time via NTP from a stratum 1 time server, and so on.