A gain or loss on an available-for-sale financial asset that is not part of a hedge is recognized directly in equity through the statement of changes in equity except for impairment losses and foreign exchange gains and losses. The accumulated remeasurement gain or loss is included in profit or loss when the asset is derecognized.

Game theory is a mathematical approach to decision making when confronted with an enemy or competitor. Games are classified according to the number of players and the algebraic sum of the payoffs. In a two-player game, if the payoff is given by the loser to the winner, the algebraic sum is zero, and the game is a zero-sum game; if it is possible for both players to profit, the game is a positive-sum game. In this situation, the sum of the payoffs for each combination of strategies is zero. For example, if X takes no action and Y chooses limited advertising, X's payoff is -1 and Y's is 1.

The systems development life cycle approach is the most common methodology applied to the development of large, highly structured application systems. The life cycle approach is based on the idea that an information system has a finite life span that is limited by the changing needs of the organization. This cycle is analytically divisible into stages. A new system life cycle begins when the inadequacy of the current system leads to a decision to develop a new or improved system. This method is a structured process for controlling the creative activity required to devise, develop, and implement an information system. The process is described in varying terms by different writers, but the nature and sequence of the steps are essentially the same. Life cycle methodologies provide enhanced management and control of the development process because they provide structure for a creative process by dividing it into manageable steps and specifying what must be produced in each phase.