Carnivore is a device used by the US FBI to monitor ISP traffiC. (S.P. Smith, et. al., Independent Technical Review of the Carnivore System Draft report, US Department of Justice Contract # 00-C-328 IITRI, CR-022216, Nov 17, 2000). Answer b, Echelon, refers to a cooperative, worldwide signal intelligence system that is run by the NSA of the United States, the Government Communications Head Quarters (GCHQ) of England, the Communications Security Establishment (CSE) of Canada, the Australian Defense Security Directorate (DSD), and the General Communications Security Bureau (GCSB) of New Zealand. These organizations are bound together under a secret 1948 agreement, UKUSA, [European Parliament, Development of Surveillance Technology and the Risk of Abuse of Economic Information, Luxembourg (April 1999), PE 166.184/Part 3 /4]. Answer c is a distracter and is discussed in the questions and answers of Chapter 4, Cryptography. Answer d is a distracter.

Securing the data manipulated by computing systems has been a challenge in the past years. Several methods to limit the information disclosure exist today, such as access control lists, firewalls, and cryptography. However, although these methods do impose limits on the information that is released by a system, they provide no guarantees about information propagation. For example, access control lists of file systems prevent unauthorized file access, but they do not control how the data is used afterwards. Similarly, cryptography provides a means to exchange information privately across a non-secure channel, but no guarantees about the confidentiality of the data are given once it is decrypted.
In low level information flow analysis, each variable is usually assigned a security level.
The basic model comprises two distinct levels: low and high, meaning, respectively, publicly observable information, and secret information. To ensure confidentiality, flowing information from high to low variables should not be allowed. On the other hand, to ensure integrity, flows to high variables should be restricted.
More generally, the security levels can be viewed as a lattice with information flowing only upwards in the lattice.
Noninterference Models
This could have been another good answer as it would help in minimizing the damage from covert channels.
The goal of a noninterference model is to help ensure that high-level actions (inputs) do not determine what low-level user s can see (outputs ) . Most of the security models presented are secured by permitting restricted ows between high- and low-level users. The noninterference model maintains activities at different security levels to separate these levels from each other. In this way, it minimizes leakages that may happen through covert channels, because there is complete separation (noninterference) between security levels.
Because a user at a higher security level has no way to interfere with the activities at a lower level, the lower-level user cannot get any information from the higher leve.
The following answers are incorrect:
Bell Lapadula
The Bell-LaPadula Model (abbreviated BLP) is a state machine model used for enforcing access control in government and military applications. It was developed by David Elliott
Bell and Leonard J. LaPadula, subsequent to strong guidance from Roger R. Schell to formalize the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) multilevel security (MLS) policy. The model is a formal state transition model of computer security policy that describes a set of access control rules which use security labels on objects and clearances for subjects.
Security labels range from the most sensitive (e.g."Top Secret"), down to the least sensitive
(e.g., "Unclassified" or "Public").
The Bell-LaPadula model focuses on data confidentiality and controlled access to classified information, in contrast to the Biba Integrity Model which describes rules for the protection of data integrity. In this formal model, the entities in an information system are divided into subjects and objects. The notion of a "secure state" is defined, and it is proven that each state transition preserves security by moving from secure state to secure state, thereby inductively proving that the system satisfies the security objectives of the model.
The Bell-LaPadula model is built on the concept of a state machine with a set of allowable states in a computer network system. The transition from one state to another state is defined by transition functions.
A system state is defined to be "secure" if the only permitted access modes of subjects to objects are in accordance with a security policy. To determine whether a specific access mode is allowed, the clearance of a subject is compared to the classification of the object
(more precisely, to the combination of classification and set of compartments, making up the security level) to determine if the subject is authorized for the specific access mode.
The clearance/classification scheme is expressed in terms of a lattice. The model defines two mandatory access control (MAC) rules and one discretionary access control (DAC) rule with three security properties:
The Simple Security Property - a subject at a given security level may not read an object at a higher security level (no read-up).
The -property (read "star"-property) - a subject at a given security level must not write to any object at a lower security level (no write-down). The -property is also known as the
Confinement property.
The Discretionary Security Property - use of an access matrix to specify the discretionary access control.
The transfer of information from a high-sensitivity document to a lower-sensitivity document may happen in the Bell-LaPadula model via the concept of trusted subjects. Trusted
Subjects are not restricted by the -property. Untrusted subjects are. Trusted Subjects must be shown to be trustworthy with regard to the security policy. This security model is directed toward access control and is characterized by the phrase: "no read up, no write down."
With Bell-LaPadula, users can create content only at or above their own security level (i.e.
secret researchers can create secret or top-secret files but may not create public files; no write-down). Conversely, users can view content only at or below their own security level
(i.e. secret researchers can view public or secret files, but may not view top-secret files; no read-up).
The Bell-LaPadula model explicitly defined its scope. It did not treat the following extensively:
Covert channels. Passing information via pre-arranged actions was described briefly.
Networks of systems. Later modeling work did address this topic.
Policies outside multilevel security. Work in the early 1990s showed that MLS is one version of boolean policies, as are all other published policies.
Biba
The Biba Model or Biba Integrity Model developed by Kenneth J. Biba in 1977, is a formal state transition system of computer security policy that describes a set of access control rules designed to ensure data integrity. Data and subjects are grouped into ordered levels of integrity. The model is designed so that subjects may not corrupt objects in a level ranked higher than the subject, or be corrupted by objects from a lower level than the subject.
In general the model was developed to circumvent a weakness in the Bell-LaPadula model which only addresses data confidentiality.
In general, preservation of data integrity has three goals:
Prevent data modification by unauthorized parties
Prevent unauthorized data modification by authorized parties
Maintain internal and external consistency (i.e. data reflects the real world)
Note: Biba address only the first goal of integrity while Clark-Wilson addresses all three
This security model is directed toward data integrity (rather than confidentiality) and is characterized by the phrase: "no read down, no write up". This is in contrast to the Bell-
LaPadula model which is characterized by the phrase "no write down, no read up".
In the Biba model, users can only create content at or below their own integrity level (a monk may write a prayer book that can be read by commoners, but not one to be read by a high priest). Conversely, users can only view content at or above their own integrity level (a monk may read a book written by the high priest, but may not read a pamphlet written by a lowly commoner). Another analogy to consider is that of the military chain of command. A
General may write orders to a Colonel, who can issue these orders to a Major. In this fashion, the General's original orders are kept intact and the mission of the military is protected (thus, "no read down" integrity). Conversely, a Private can never issue orders to his Sergeant, who may never issue orders to a Lieutenant, also protecting the integrity of the mission ("no write up").
The Biba model defines a set of security rules similar to the Bell-LaPadula model. These rules are the reverse of the Bell-LaPadula rules:
The Simple Integrity Axiom states that a subject at a given level of integrity must not read an object at a lower integrity level (no read down).
The * (star) Integrity Axiom states that a subject at a given level of integrity must not write to any object at a higher level of integrity (no write up).
Lattice Model
In computer security, lattice-based access control (LBAC) is a complex access control model based on the interaction between any combination of objects (such as resources, computers, and applications) and subjects (such as individuals, groups or organizations).
In this type of label-based mandatory access control model, a lattice is used to define the levels of security that an object may have and that a subject may have access to. The subject is only allowed to access an object if the security level of the subject is greater than or equal to that of the object.
Mathematically, the security level access may also be expressed in terms of the lattice (a partial order set) where each object and subject have a greatest lower bound (meet) and least upper bound (join) of access rights. For example, if two subjects A and B need access to an object, the security level is defined as the meet of the levels of A and B. In another example, if two objects X and Y are combined, they form another object Z, which is assigned the security level formed by the join of the levels of X and Y.
The following reference(s) were/was used to create this question:
ISC2 Review Seminar Student Manual V8.00 page 255.
Dorothy Denning developed the information flow model to address convert channels .
and
The ISC2 Official Study Guide, Second Edition, on page 683-685
and
https://secure.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/wiki/Biba_security_model
and
https://secure.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/wiki/Bell%E2%80%93LaPadula_model and
https://secure.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/wiki/Lattice-based_access_control

Configuration management isn't about preventing change but ensuring the integrity
of IT resources by preventing unauthorised or improper changes.
According to the Official ISC2 guide to the CISSP exam, a good CM process is one that can:
(1)
accommodate change;
(2)
accommodate the reuse of proven standards and best practices;
(3)
ensure that all requirements remain clear, concise, and valid;
(4)
ensure changes, standards, and requirements are communicated promptly and precisely; and
(5)
ensure that the results conform to each instance of the product.
Configuration management Configuration management (CM) is the detailed recording and updating of information that describes an enterprise's computer systems and networks, including all hardware and software components. Such information typically includes the versions and updates that have been applied to installed software packages and the locations and network addresses of hardware devices. Special configuration management software is available. When a system needs a hardware or software upgrade, a computer technician can accesses the configuration management program and database to see what is currently installed. The technician can then make a more informed decision about the upgrade needed. An advantage of a configuration management application is that the entire collection of systems can be reviewed to make sure any changes made to one system do not adversely affect any of the other systems Configuration management is also used in software development, where it is called Unified Configuration Management (UCM). Using UCM, developers can keep track of the source code, documentation, problems, changes requested, and changes made. Change management In a computer system environment, change management refers to a systematic approach to keeping track of the details of the system (for example, what operating system release is running on each computer and which fixes have been applied).

The answer : People. The other choices can be strengthened and counted on (For the most part) to remain consistent if properly protected. People are fallible and unpredictable.
Most security intrusions are caused by employees. People get tired, careless, and greedy. They are not always reliable and may falter in following defined guidelines and best practices. Security professionals must install adequate prevention and detection controls and properly train all systems users Proper hiring and firing practices can eliminate certain risks. Security Awareness training is key to ensuring people are aware of risks and their responsibilities.
The following answers are incorrect:Software. Although software exploits are major threat and cause for concern, people are the weakest point in a security posture. Software can be removed, upgraded or patched to reduce risk. Communications. Although many attacks from inside and outside an organization use communication methods such as the network infrastructure, this is not the weakest point in a security posture. Communications can be monitored, devices installed or upgraded to reduce risk and react to attack attempts.
Hardware. Hardware components can be a weakness in a security posture, but they are not the weakest link of the choices provided. Access to hardware can be minimized by such measures as installing locks and monitoring access in and out of certain areas.
The following reference(s) were/was used to create this question: Shon Harris AIO v.3 P.19, 107-109 ISC2 OIG 2007, p.51-55

Culpable negligence is defined as: Recklessly acting without reasonable caution and putting another person at risk of injury or death (or failing to do something with the same consequences)
Where a suspected security breach has been caused (through wilful intent or culpable negligence)
disciplinary action may be sought in line with the appropriate misconduct guidelines for internal
employees.
By not exercising Due Care and taking the proper actions, the executives would be liable for
losses a company has suffered.
Reference(s) used for this question:
TIPTON, Hal, (ISC)2, Introduction to the CISSP Exam presentation.
and
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/culpable+negligence