When a firm acts as an agent, it executes trades on behalf of clients and earns a commission for each transaction.
* Why is Option C Correct?
* Agents do not take ownership of securities but facilitate transactions.
* They charge a fixed fee or percentage-based commission for each trade executed.
* Why Not Other Options?
* A (Profiting from the spread) # Market makers profit from bid-ask spreads, not agents.
* B (Providing advice) # Advice is provided by investment advisers, not agents.
* D (Trading against its own order book) # Agents do not take opposing positions; this applies to principal trading.
# Reference: FCA Handbook (Market Conduct Rules), CISI Wealth & Investment Management.

In an upward-sloping yield curve, long-term bonds typically have higher yields than short-term bonds. As the bond nears maturity:
* Price Appreciation: The bond price rises as the yield declines due to the pull-to-par effect.
* Capital Gains Opportunity: A fund manager can sell the bond before maturity for a profit if interest rates remain unchanged.
* Yield and Price Relationship: Bond prices move inversely to yields. When yields fall, prices rise, allowing for a profit upon sale.
# Reference: CISI Wealth & Investment Management (Fixed-Income Securities), CFA Institute (Bond Pricing & Yield Curves).

* Understanding Bullet Payments:
* A bullet payment is a single payment of principal and interest at maturity.
* Zero coupon bonds do not provide periodic interest payments, making them associated with bullet payments.
* Elimination of Other Options:
* A: Treasury bonds typically pay semiannual interest.
* C: Convertible bonds may have periodic interest.
* D: Premium bonds involve prize draws, not bullet payments.
References:
* ICWIM Module 3: Coverage of fixed income securities and payment structures.

The geometric mean is calculated using the formula:
A math equation with numbers and symbols AI-generated content may be incorrect.

Used in Finance: The geometric mean is crucial in measuring compound returns over time.
* More Accurate for Investments: It accounts for volatility in investment returns.
# Reference: CFA Institute, CISI Wealth & Investment Management (Quantitative Methods).

Standard deviation is a widely used measure of volatility, but it has a significant limitation: it is based on past data, which may not reflect future risks.
* Key Limitations of Standard Deviation:
* It only measures historical price fluctuations, not future risks.
* It assumes normal distribution, which may not hold in financial markets.
* It does not distinguish between upside and downside volatility.
* Alternative Measures of Risk:
* Value at Risk (VaR) - Estimates potential losses under extreme market conditions.
* Beta - Measures risk relative to the overall market.
* Sharpe Ratio - Assesses risk-adjusted returns.
# Reference: CFA Institute (Risk Metrics), CISI Wealth & Investment Management.